Colonialism in South Africa leaves a lasting legacy of reduced genetic diversity in Cape buffalo.

The iconic Cape buffalo has experienced several documented population declines in recent history. These declines have been largely attributed to the late 19th century rinderpest pandemic. However, the effect of the rinderpest pandemic on their genetic diversity remains contentious, and other factors that have potentially affected this diversity include environmental changes during the Pleistocene, range expansions and recent human activity. Motivated by this, we present analyses of whole genome sequencing data from 59 individuals from across the Cape buffalo range to assess present-day levels of genome-wide genetic diversity and what factors have influenced these levels. We found that the Cape buffalo has high average heterozygosity overall (0.40%), with the two southernmost populations having significantly lower heterozygosity levels (0.33% and 0.29%) on par with that of the domesticated water buffalo (0.29%). Interestingly, we found that these lower levels are probably due to recent inbreeding (average fraction of runs of homozygosity 23.7% and 19.9%) rather than factors further back in time during the Pleistocene. Moreover, detailed investigations of recent demographic history show that events across the past three centuries were the main drivers of the exceptional loss of genetic diversity in the southernmost populations, coincident with the onset of colonialism in the southern extreme of the Cape buffalo range. Hence, our results add to the growing body of studies suggesting that multiple recent human-mediated impacts during the colonial period caused massive losses of large mammal abundance in southern Africa.

Sequestration and Destruction of Rinderpest Virus-Containing Material 10 Years after Eradication.

In 2021, the world marked 10 years free from rinderpest. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and World Organisation for Animal Health have since made great strides in consolidating, sequencing, and destroying stocks of rinderpest virus-containing material, currently kept by only 14 known institutions. This progress must continue.

The 1711 rinderpest in Bernardino Ramazzini's XIII Oration and the COVID-19 public health emergency: facts and common aspects.

Although Bernardino Ramazzini is usually regarded only as the father of occupational medicine, his approach to fight the devastating rinderpest epidemic in 1711 is worth mentioning in the light of the public health emergency represented by Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). This commentary (i) focuses on Ramazzini's xiii oration describing that event, (ii) analyses the approach suggested to fight the cattle epidemic and economic threats, (iii) highlights some similar aspects between the 1711 rinderpest epidemic and the current COVID-19 pandemic (team expertise, contagion transmissibility, drug treatment, preventive measures, decision timeliness).

Recombinant Newcastle disease viruses with targets for PCR diagnostics for rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants.

Since February 1st 2011, rinderpest (RP) has been officially declared eradicated worldwide. National authorities have been requested to destroy all their RP related materials. Nonetheless, their national reference laboratories performing real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays (PCR diagnostics) need RP positive control samples, since some countries still prefer to maintain diagnostic capability for RP for several reasons. In the future, a similar situation will arise for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) as the ambition has been expressed to eradicate PPR. Anticipating on this, we intended to perform qualified PCR diagnostics without use of infectious RPV or PPRV. Therefore, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) with small RNA inserts based on RPV or PPRV sequences were generated and used as positive control material. Recombinant NDVs (recNDVs) were differentially detected by previously established PCR diagnostics for RPV or PPRV. Both recNDVs contain a second PCR target showing that additional targets in NDV are feasible and would increase the diagnostic sensitivity by use of two PCR assays. RecNDV with small PCR targets is not classified as RPV or PPRV containing material, and can be used to mimic RPV or PPRV. Using these recNDVs as virus positive material contributes to the ambition of worldwide eradication, while qualified PCR diagnostics for these OIE-listed diseases remains operational.

Rinderpest eradication: challenges for remaining disease free and implications for future eradication efforts.

In 2011, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) declared global freedom from rinderpest, formally announcing that rinderpest virus infections had been eliminated from susceptible livestock populations. At the same time, it was recognised that rinderpest virus, and material containing rinderpest virus, remained stored in an unspecified number of facilities across the world. Although natural infections had been eliminated, there remained a risk that rinderpest could reoccur if such infectious material accidentally leaked or was intentionally released from one of these facilities into a susceptible animal population. To minimise this risk, the OIE and FAO, with the support of international partners, set in place a framework to: reduce the quantity of remaining rinderpest-virus-containing material; ensure that such material was only stored in high-security facilities; regulate any handling or manipulation of the virus; maintain vigilance amongst livestock keepers and Veterinary Services in the post-eradication era; and develop contingency plans to deal with any suspected or actual reoccurrence of rinderpest disease. In 2016, five years after the declaration of global freedom from rinderpest, official reports to the OIE show that virus and virus-containing material remain stored in 21 countries worldwide in 22 separate facilities, of which only five have been inspected and approved for holding rinderpest virus or vaccine. There is still much work to be done to further reduce the risk of a reoccurrence.

En 2011, l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) et l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) ont annoncé officiellement l'élimination de l'infection due au virus de la peste bovine dans les populations d'animaux d'élevage sensibles, déclarant ainsi la planète indemne de cette maladie. Parallèlement, les deux organisations faisaient état de l'existence d'un nombre indéterminé d'établissements dans le monde détenant des stocks du virus bovipestique ainsi que des produits contenant ce virus. Malgré l'élimination de l'infection chez ses hôtes naturels, un risque de réapparition de la peste bovine subsiste en cas de fuite accidentelle ou d'émission délibérée de ces produits infectieux dans les populations animales sensibles à partir de l'un de ces établissements. Afin de minimiser ce risque, l'OIE et la FAO soutenus par leurs partenaires internationaux ont mis en place un cadre visant plusieurs objectifs : réduire les quantités restantes de produits contenant le virus de la peste bovine dans le monde ; veiller à ce que ces produits ne soient stockés que dans des établissements de haute sécurité ; réglementer les conditions de détention et de manipulation du virus ; poursuivre la surveillance exercée par les éleveurs et les Services vétérinaires au cours de la phase post-éradication ; concevoir des plans d'urgence visant à faire face à toute réapparition suspectée ou confirmée de la peste bovine. En 2016, soit cinq ans après la déclaration de l'éradication mondiale de la peste bovine, il ressort des rapports officiels adressés à l'OIE que 21 pays détiennent encore des stocks du virus de la peste bovine ou des produits contenant ce virus, répartis en 22 établissements distincts dont seulement cinq ont fait l'objet d'une inspection et ont été dûment habilités à détenir des stocks de virus de la peste bovine ou de vaccins contre cette maladie. Il reste donc encore beaucoup à faire pour continuer à réduire le risque de réapparition de la peste bovine.

En 2011, la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) anunciaron oficialmente que las infecciones causadas por el virus de la peste bovina habían sido eliminadas de las poblaciones sensibles de ganado, declarando así que el mundo quedaba libre de la enfermedad. Al mismo tiempo, significaron que un número no especificado de instalaciones dispersas por el mundo albergaban muestras del virus y otros productos que lo contenían. Aunque las infecciones naturales habían quedado eliminadas, subsistía el riesgo de reaparición de la peste bovina si en una de esas instalaciones se producía una fuga accidental o una liberación intencionada de material infeccioso y este entraba en contacto con una población animal sensible. Para reducir al mínimo tal riesgo, la OIE y la FAO, con apoyo de colaboradores internacionales, definieron un dispositivo encaminado a: reducir el volumen de material restante con contenido viral de la peste bovina; garantizar que ese material fuera conservado únicamente en instalaciones de alta seguridad; reglamentar toda manipulación del virus; mantener la vigilancia entre cuidadores de ganado y Servicios Veterinarios en el periodo posterior a la erradicación; y elaborar planes de emergencia para responder a toda reaparición, presunta o confirmada, de la peste bovina. En 2016, cinco años después de la declaración de ausencia mundial de peste bovina, los informes oficiales remitidos a la OIE daban fe de que había virus y productos que lo contenían en 22 instalaciones situadas en 21 países del mundo, de las que solo cinco habían sido inspeccionadas y homologadas para albergar virus de la peste bovina o vacunas contra la enfermedad. Queda pues mucho trabajo por delante para reducir en mayor medida el riesgo de reaparición.

Rinderpest experience.

Rinderpest, the most dreaded disease of cattle, originated as far back as the domestication of cattle, occurring in Asia more than 10,000 years ago. It has been the main preoccupation of Veterinary Service activities for many centuries and was the major motivation for establishing the first veterinary school in Lyon, France, in 1761. Gaining control of the disease was the impetus for the founding of many regional and international organisations (including the World Organisation for Animal Health). Outbreaks of rinderpest have led to food shortages and starvation, economic losses and poverty, social unrest, and disrupted transport networks in regions where agriculture was dependent on draught cattle. The rinderpest virus, causative agent of the disease, has also been used as a biological weapon in the past. Many regional rinderpest eradication campaigns have been implemented, including Joint Project 15; the Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC); the South Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign; the West Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign; and the Pan African Programme for the Control of Epizootics. All of these campaigns were supported by regional and international organisations, and the disease was finally eradicated in 2011. The benefit of PARC in terms of the value of avoided losses in cattle products due to the decrease in the disease's occurrence was estimated to be between 581,000 and 35,433,000 European currency units. Currently, the world is prepared to prevent the deliberate or accidental release of the remaining infectious rinderpest virus material which exists in research and diagnostic facilities across the world.

La peste bovine, la plus redoutable des maladies bovines, existe depuis l'époque reculée de la domestication des bovins, puisqu'elle est apparue en Asie il y a plus de dix mille ans. Au fil des siècles, cette maladie a été une préoccupation centrale des services en charge de la santé animale et a été le motif principal de la création de la première école vétérinaire, à Lyon (France) en 1761. L'ambition de maîtriser la peste bovine a participé de l'élan qui a vu naître nombre d'organisations régionales et internationales (dont l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale). Les épidémies de peste bovine ont entraîné des pénuries alimentaires et des famines, des pertes économiques et une pauvreté accrue, une instabilité sociale et l'effondrement des réseaux de transport dans les régions où l'agriculture dépendait des bovidés de trait. Le virus responsable de la peste bovine a également été utilisé en tant qu'arme biologique dans le passé. De nombreuses campagnes d'éradication de la peste bovine ont été mises en œuvre à l'échelle régionale, parmi lesquelles le Projet conjoint 15, la Campagne panafricaine de lutte contre la peste bovine (PARC), la Campagne d'éradication de la peste bovine en Asie du Sud, la Campagne d'éradication de la peste bovine en Asie occidentale et le Programme panafricain de contrôle des épizooties. Ces campagnes ont toutes reçu le soutien d'organisations régionales et internationales et la maladie a finalement été éradiquée en 2011. Les bénéfices du programme PARC en termes de pertes de production évitées dans le secteur bovin grâce au déclin de l'incidence de la maladie ont été estimés entre 581 000 et 35 433 000 ECU (unité de compte européenne). Aujourd'hui, le monde est prêt à prévenir toute libération délibérée ou accidentelle des stocks restants de produits contenant le virus de la peste bovine détenus dans différents établissements de recherche et de diagnostic répartis dans le monde.

Los orígenes de la peste bovina, que es la más temida de las enfermedades del ganado vacuno, se remontan a la domesticación de los bovinos, que se dio en Asia hace más de 10 000 años. Durante muchos siglos ha sido una de las grandes preocupaciones que han guiado el trabajo de los Servicios Veterinarios, y fue uno de los principales factores que motivaron la fundación de la primera escuela de veterinaria en Lyon (Francia) en 1761. El objetivo de llegar a controlar la enfermedad fue el acicate que llevó a la creación de numerosas organizaciones de ámbito regional e internacional (entre ellas la Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal). Los brotes de peste bovina han causado episodios de escasez de alimentos y hambruna, pérdidas económicas, pobreza y disturbios sociales, sin olvidar la desorganización de las redes de transporte en regiones donde la agricultura dependía del ganado de tiro. En el pasado el virus de la peste bovina, agente causal de la enfermedad, también ha sido utilizado como arma biológica. Numerosas campañas regionales de erradicación de la peste bovina han visto la luz, entre ellas el llamado Proyecto Conjunto 15, la Campaña panafricana contra la peste bovina (PARC), la Campaña de Erradicación de la Peste Bovina en Asia Meridional, la Campaña de Erradicación de la Peste Bovina en Asia Occidental y el Programa Panafricano de Control de Epizootias. Gracias a todas estas iniciativas, respaldadas por organizaciones regionales e internacionales, en 2011 la enfermedad quedó por fin erradicada. Según las estimaciones, basadas en el valor económico de las pérdidas de productos ganaderos evitadas gracias a la reducción de los casos de enfermedad, la PARC deparó entre 581 000 y 35 433 000 Ecus (unidades de cuenta europeas) de beneficios. En la actualidad el mundo está preparado para evitar toda liberación accidental o deliberada de las muestras infecciosas de virus de la peste bovina que aún se conservan en centros de investigación y diagnóstico de todo el planeta.

Enhanced immunosurveillance for animal morbilliviruses using vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) pseudotypes.

The measurement of virus-specific neutralising antibodies represents the "gold-standard" for diagnostic serology. For animal morbilliviruses, such as peste des petits ruminants (PPRV) or rinderpest virus (RPV), live virus-based neutralisation tests require high-level biocontainment to prevent the accidental escape of the infectious agents. In this study, we describe the adaptation of a replication-defective vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔG) based pseudotyping system for the measurement of neutralising antibodies against animal morbilliviruses. By expressing the haemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) proteins of PPRV on VSVΔG pseudotypes bearing a luciferase marker gene, neutralising antibody titres could be measured rapidly and with high sensitivity. Serological responses against the four distinct lineages of PPRV could be measured simultaneously and cross-neutralising responses against other morbilliviruses compared. Using this approach, we observed that titres of neutralising antibodies induced by vaccination with live attenuated PPRV were lower than those induced by wild type virus infection and the level of cross-lineage neutralisation varied between vaccinates. By comparing neutralising responses from animals infected with either PPRV or RPV, we found that responses were highest against the homologous virus, indicating that retrospective analyses of serum samples could be used to confirm the nature of the original pathogen to which an animal had been exposed. Accordingly, when screening sera from domestic livestock and wild ruminants in Tanzania, we detected evidence of cross-species infection with PPRV, canine distemper virus (CDV) and a RPV-related bovine morbillivirus, suggesting that exposure to animal morbilliviruses may be more widespread than indicated previously using existing diagnostic techniques.

Protection of Cattle against Rinderpest by Vaccination with Wild-Type but Not Attenuated Strains of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus.

UNLABELLED: Although rinderpest virus (RPV) has been eradicated in the wild, efforts are still continuing to restrict the extent to which live virus is distributed in facilities around the world and to prepare for any reappearance of the disease, whether through deliberate or accidental release. In an effort to find an alternative vaccine which could be used in place of the traditional live attenuated RPV strains, we have determined whether cattle can be protected from rinderpest by inoculation with vaccine strains of the related morbillivirus, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). Cattle were vaccinated with wild-type PPRV or either of two established PPRV vaccine strains, Nigeria/75/1 or Sungri/96. All animals developed antibody and T cell immune responses to the inoculated PPRV. However, only the animals given wild-type PPRV were protected from RPV challenge. Animals given PPRV/Sungri/96 were only partially protected, and animals given PPRV/Nigeria/75/1 showed no protection against RPV challenge. While sera from animals vaccinated with the vaccine strain of RPV showed cross-neutralizing ability against PPRV, none of the sera from animals vaccinated with any strain of PPRV was able to neutralize RPV although sera from animals inoculated with wild-type PPRV were able to neutralize RPV-pseudotyped vesicular stomatitis virus. IMPORTANCE: Rinderpest virus has been eradicated, and it is only the second virus for which this is so. Significant efforts are still required to ensure preparedness for a possible escape of RPV from a laboratory or its deliberate release. Since RPV vaccine protects sheep and goats from PPRV, it is important to determine if the reverse is true as this would provide a non-RPV vaccine for dealing with suspected RPV outbreaks. This is probably the last in vivo study with live RPV that will be approved.

Livestock vaccination in India: an analysis of theory and practice among multiple stakeholders.

An effective and efficient disease prevention and control strategy is of paramount importance to improve the quality and quantity of livestock production in the Indian context. Although livestock vaccination is considered an emerging innovation of socioeconomic importance in the Indian dairy industry, the rate of adoption and diffusion of vaccination technology is very low at field level. In this context, the authors examined the efforts of the Government of India to protect livestock health and control disease, considered the lessons learnt from rinderpest eradication, looked at field practices and the reality on the ground, and studied the perceptions of multiple stakeholders with regards to the relevance, profitability and sustainability of vaccination. In this study, the authors consider policy implications for the Indian dairy industry using the responses of 360 dairy farmers, 80 research scientists and 40 extension workers in India. The study revealed that scientists and extension experts rated vaccination highly in terms of its relevance, profitability and sustainability, while the perception of farmers was less favourable. The study also observed that, even after implementation of various disease control programmes with heavy financial expenditure, there was a wide gap between farmers and scientists and between farmers and extension workers with regards to their perceptions of the relevance, profitability and sustainability of vaccination, while the gap was very narrow between scientists and extension workers. It can be concluded, therefore, that there is a need to generate innovations for disease control that are perceived as relevant, profitable and sustainable so as to encourage higher levels of diffusion and adoption at field level. This study recommends that farmers partner with researchers and extension workers to ensure effective generation and transfer of new dairying technologies, leading to higher production and productivity in the Indian dairy sector.

En Inde, l'amélioration qualitative et quantitative de la productivité des élevages passe nécessairement par la mise en place de stratégies efficaces et efficientes de prévention et de contrôle des maladies animales. Les producteurs de lait et de produits laitiers considèrent la vaccination du bétail comme une innovation importante au plan socio-économique mais le niveau d'adoption et de diffusion des technologies vaccinales demeure très faible sur le terrain. Ce constat a incité les auteurs à effectuer une étude visant à analyser les efforts déployés par le gouvernement indien pour protéger la santé du bétail et pour lutter contre les maladies, à déterminer le niveau de prise en compte des leçons de l'éradication de la peste bovine, et à décrire les pratiques et la situation concrète sur le terrain ainsi que la manière dont les diverses parties prenantes perçoivent la pertinence, la rentabilité économique et les effets dans le temps de la vaccination. Dans cette étude, les auteurs ont interrogé 360 éleveurs de vaches laitières, 80 chercheurs et 40 agents de vulgarisation en Inde afin de déterminer les effets des politiques zoosanitaires sur le secteur de l'élevage laitier indien. L'étude a montré que la pertinence, la rentabilité économique et les effets dans le temps de la vaccination étaient perçus très favorablement par les chercheurs et par les agents de vulgarisation, tandis que la perception des éleveurs était moins positive. L'étude a également permis de constater que l'écart manifeste entre la perception des éleveurs d'un côté et celle des chercheurs et des agents de vulgarisation de l'autre concernant la pertinence, la rentabilité et l'effet dans le temps de la vaccination subsistait même après la mise en oeuvre à grands frais de programmes de lutte contre les maladies animales, tandis que cet écart était minime entre les chercheurs et les agents de vulgarisation. Les auteurs concluent sur la nécessité de veiller à ce que les innovations mises en place en matière de lutte contre les maladies animales soient perçues comme pertinentes, rentables et durables, afin de promouvoir une meilleure appropriation et diffusion de ces méthodes sur le terrain. Les auteurs préconisent le recours à des partenariats entre les éleveurs, les chercheurs et les agents de vulgarisation afin d'assurer une conception et un transfert efficaces des technologies dans le secteur de la production de lait et d'améliorer ainsi la production et la productivité du secteur laitier indien.

En el contexto de la India, para mejorar la producción bovina tanto en calidad como en cantidad es de capital importancia disponer de una estrategia eficaz y eficiente de prevención y control de enfermedades. Aunque la vacunación del ganado está considerada una innovación incipiente de gran importancia socioeconómica para el sector lechero del país, sobre el terreno se dan índices muy bajos de adopción y difusión de las técnicas de vacunación. En tales circunstancias, los autores examinaron las iniciativas del Gobierno de la India para proteger la salud del ganado y combatir sus enfermedades, repasaron las enseñanzas extraídas de la erradicación de la peste bovina, observaron la praxis y las realidades sobre el terreno e indagaron en la percepción que tienen numerosos interlocutores del sector de la pertinencia, rentabilidad y sostenibilidad de las vacunaciones. A partir de las respuestas aportadas por 360 productores, 80 investigadores y 40 agentes de extensión del país, los autores estudian las repercusiones normativas para la industria lechera india. El proceso puso de manifiesto que los científicos y especialistas en extensión otorgan a la vacunación un lugar de privilegio por lo que respecta a su pertinencia, rentabilidad y sostenibilidad, mientras que a los productores les merece una opinión menos positiva. Los autores observaron igualmente que, aun tras la implantación de diversos programas de lucha zoosanitaria que supusieron cuantiosas inversiones económicas, existía un gran desfase entre los productores, por un lado, y los científicos y agentes de extensión, por el otro, en cuanto a la valoración que hacían de la pertinencia, rentabilidad y sostenibilidad de las vacunaciones, mientras que las opiniones de científicos y agentes de extensión apenas diferían. Cabe concluir, por lo tanto, que para inducir sobre el terreno mayores niveles de adopción y difusión es indispensable generar innovaciones de lucha zoosanitaria que sean percibidas como algo pertinente, rentable y sostenible. Los autores recomiendan que los productores trabajen en asociación con los investigadores y agentes de extensión para lograr así que se generen y transfieran eficazmente nuevas tecnologías de producción lechera, lo que a su vez redundará en un aumento de la producción y productividad del sector lechero indio.

Exploring the influence of ancient and historic megaherbivore extirpations on the global methane budget.

Globally, large-bodied wild mammals are in peril. Because "megamammals" have a disproportionate influence on vegetation, trophic interactions, and ecosystem function, declining populations are of considerable conservation concern. However, this is not new; trophic downgrading occurred in the past, including the African rinderpest epizootic of the 1890s, the massive Great Plains bison kill-off in the 1860s, and the terminal Pleistocene extinction of megafauna. Examining the consequences of these earlier events yields insights into contemporary ecosystem function. Here, we focus on changes in methane emissions, produced as a byproduct of enteric fermentation by herbivores. Although methane is ∼ 200 times less abundant than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the greater efficiency of methane in trapping radiation leads to a significant role in radiative forcing of climate. Using global datasets of late Quaternary mammals, domestic livestock, and human population from the United Nations as well as literature sources, we develop a series of allometric regressions relating mammal body mass to population density and CH4 production, which allows estimation of methane production by wild and domestic herbivores for each historic or ancient time period. We find the extirpation of megaherbivores reduced global enteric emissions between 2.2-69.6 Tg CH4 y(-1) during the various time periods, representing a decrease of 0.8-34.8% of the overall inputs to tropospheric input. Our analyses suggest that large-bodied mammals have a greater influence on methane emissions than previously appreciated and, further, that changes in the source pool from herbivores can influence global biogeochemical cycles and, potentially, climate.

The Entangled History of Sadoka (Rinderpest) and Veterinary Science in Tanzania and the Wider World, 1891-1901.

Scholarship on the Tanzanian Rinderpest epizootic of the 1890s has assumed that German colonizers understood from the start that they were confronting the same disease that had afflicted Eurasia for centuries. Outward indicators of the epizootic, known locally as sadoka, especially wildlife destruction, were unknown in Europe, leading German veterinarians to doubt that the African disease was Rinderpest. Financial constraints and conflicting development agendas, especially tension between ranching and pastoralism, deterred early colonial applications of veterinary science that might have led to an early diagnosis. European veterinarians, guarding their authority against medical researchers, opposed inoculation therapies in the case of Rinderpest in favor of veterinary policing despite recent breakthroughs in vaccine research. The virus was not identified before reaching South Africa in 1896, but this breakthrough had little influence on policy in East Africa. Yet emergent international disease conventions directed at bubonic plague entangled with veterinary policy in East Africa.

[Effects of the periodical spread of rinderpest on famine, epidemic, and tiger disasters in the late 17th Century].

This study clarifies the causes of the repetitive occurrences of such phenomena as rinderpest, epidemic, famine, and tiger disasters recorded in the Joseon Dynasty Chronicle and the Seungjeongwon Journals in the period of great catastrophe, the late 17th century in which the great Gyeongsin famine (1670~1671) and the great Eulbyeong famine (1695~1696) occurred, from the perspective that they were biological exchanges caused by the new arrival of rinderpest in the early 17th century. It is an objection to the achievements by existing studies which suggest that the great catastrophes occurring in the late 17th century are evidence of phenomena in a little ice age. First of all, rinderpest has had influence on East Asia as it had been spread from certain areas in Machuria in May 1636 through Joseon, where it raged throughout the nation, and then to the west part of Japan. The new arrival of rinderpest was indigenized in Joseon, where it was localized and spread periodically while it was adjusted to changes in the population of cattle with immunity in accordance with their life spans and reproduction rates. As the new rinderpest, which showed high pathogenicity in the early 17th century, was indigenized with its high mortality and continued until the late 17th century, it broke out periodically in general. Contrastively, epidemics like smallpox and measles that were indigenized as routine ones had occurred constantly from far past times. As a result, the rinderpest, which tried a new indigenization, and the human epidemics, which had been already indigenized long ago, were unexpectedly overlapped in their breakout, and hence great changes were noticed in the aspects of the human casualty due to epidemics. The outbreak of rinderpest resulted in famine due to lack of farming cattle, and the famine caused epidemics among people. The casualty of the human population due to the epidemics in turn led to negligence of farming cattle, which constituted factors that triggered rage and epidemics of rinderpest. The more the number of sources of infection and hosts with low immunity increased, the more lost human resources and farming cattle were lost, which led to a great famine. The periodic outbreak of the rinderpester along with the routine prevalence of various epidemics in the 17thcentury also had influenced on domestic and wild animals. Due to these phenomenon, full-fledged famines occurred that were incomparable with earlier ones. The number of domestic animals that were neglected by people who, faced with famines, were not able to take care of them was increased, and this might have brought about the rage of epidemics like rinderpest in domestic animals like cattle. The great Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines due to reoccurrence of the rinderpest in the late 17th century linked rinderpester, epidemics and great famines so that they interacted with each other. Furthermore, the recurring cycle of epidemics-famines-rinderpest-great famines constituted a great cycle with synergy, which resulted in eco-economic-historical great catastrophes accompanied by large scale casualties. Therefore, the Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines occurring in the late 17th century can be treated as events caused by the repetition of various periodic disastrous factors generated in 1670~1671 and in 1695~1696 respectively, and particularly as phenomena caused by biological exchanges based on rinderpester., rather than as little ice age phenomena due to relatively long term temperature lowering.

The second eradication: rinderpest.

The eradication of rinderpest virus was less celebrated than the eradication of smallpox virus. However, this is only the second campaign to eradicate a virus worldwide which is successful. This gives the opportunity to recall how important rinderpest had been these past centuries for farmers and for public health.